Generator

 Introduction

An electrical generator, sometimes referred to as an alternator, is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. This is accomplished by using electromagnetic induction to create electrical current. Electrical generators are used in a wide range of applications from powering homes and businesses to providing power for spacecraft. There are several different types of electrical generators, each with their own unique advantages and disadvantages. 

Types of Generators

There are two main types of electrical generators: AC generators and DC generators. AC generators, also known as alternators, create an alternating current. This type of generator is commonly used in power plants and other large-scale applications where a constant, stable power source is required. DC generators, on the other hand, create a direct current. These generators are typically used in smaller-scale applications such as emergency generators, backup power sources, and portable generators. 

AC Generators 

As mentioned earlier, AC generators produce an alternating current. An alternating current is a type of electrical current that reverses direction in a cyclic pattern. The most common type of AC generator is the synchronous generator. A synchronous generator has a rotor and a stator. The rotor is the rotating part of the generator, while the stator remains stationary. The rotor produces a magnetic field that rotates around the stator. This rotating magnetic field induces an electrical current in the stator. 

One key advantage of AC generators is that they are efficient and reliable. They are also relatively easy to maintain and require very little in the way of maintenance. However, AC generators can be difficult to control and require a lot of energy to start up. Additionally, they can be quite large and bulky, making them unsuitable for portable or mobile applications. 

DC Generators 

DC generators, as mentioned, create a direct current. This type of generator is typically used in smaller-scale applications, such as emergency generators or backup power sources. The most common type of DC generator is the permanent magnet generator. A permanent magnet generator has a rotor and a stator, much like an AC generator. However, instead of using a rotating magnetic field to induce an electrical current in the stator, a permanent magnet generator uses the magnetic field from a permanent magnet. 

One key advantage of DC generators is that they are easy to control and require very little in the way of maintenance. They are also quite compact and portable, making them ideal for use in emergency situations or in remote locations. However, DC generators are not as efficient as AC generators and can be more expensive to operate over the long-term. They also tend to have a shorter lifespan than AC generators. 

Difference Between AC and DC Generators 

The main difference between AC and DC generators lies in the type of current they produce. AC generators produce an alternating current, while DC generators produce a direct current. Beyond this primary difference, there are several other factors that set the two types of generators apart from one another. 

Efficiency: AC generators are typically more efficient than DC generators. This is because the alternating current produced by an AC generator can be easily transformed to higher or lower voltages using a transformer. DC generators, on the other hand, cannot be transformed in the same way, resulting in a less efficient system overall. 

Portability: DC generators are generally more portable than AC generators. This is because they are smaller and lighter than their AC counterparts. Additionally, DC generators can be powered by a variety of fuel sources, making them ideal for use in remote locations. AC generators, by contrast, are usually stationary and require a large amount of energy to start up, making them unsuitable for portable or mobile applications. 

Maintenance: AC generators tend to require more maintenance than DC generators. This is because they are larger and more complex systems overall. They also have more moving parts, which require regular upkeep to operate at peak efficiency. DC generators, by contrast, are simpler systems with fewer moving parts, resulting in simpler maintenance requirements. 

Cost: DC generators are generally less expensive than AC generators. This is due in part to their smaller size and simpler construction, which makes them easier and less expensive to manufacture. Additionally, DC generators tend to be more energy-efficient over the long-term, resulting in lower operating costs compared to AC generators. 

Conclusion 

Electrical generators are an essential tool for providing power to homes, businesses, and other critical infrastructure. There are two main types of generators: AC generators and DC generators. These generators differ in the type of current they produce and in several other important factors, such as efficiency, portability, maintenance requirements, and cost. Ultimately, the choice between an AC generator and a DC generator will depend on the specific needs of the application, as each type of generator has its own unique advantages and disadvantages.6

Excel

Excel

 It is one of the most widely used software tools in today's digital age. With its numerous functionalities, Excel has revolutionized the way businesses, individuals and organizations manage and analyze data.

To begin with, Excel is a spreadsheet software which allows users to organize and analyze data effectively. It has no fixed limit on the number of rows or columns it can contain, hence, making it easy to handle large datasets. Excel has a wide range of functionalities such as data sorting, filtering, conditional formatting, and arithmetic operations, among others.

One of the main benefits of Excel is that it can help minimize human error in data entry and calculation. It allows users to enter data into cells and then perform calculations on those cells via pre-built formulas, functions, and operators. This not only saves time and effort but also ensures greater accuracy and consistency in data management.

Another important feature of Excel is its ability to create graphical representations of data such as bar graphs, pie charts, and line graphs. These graphs help users to visualize data trends and patterns, thus, making it easy to interpret data and draw insights.

Excel also includes a range of tools for data manipulation and analysis. For example, it has pivot tables which can help users easily summarize large data sets based on different criteria such as date, location or product type. It also offers powerful statistical functions for analyzing data distributions, performing correlation analysis, and regression analysis.

Furthermore, Excel offers a range of add-ins and integrations with other software tools. These include statistical and financial analysis add-ins, as well as the capability to export data to other software programs such as Access, PowerPoint, and Word. Excel also offers cloud-based tools such as Microsoft Teams and OneDrive, which allow multiple users to collaborate on the same Excel files in real-time.

In conclusion, Excel is an essential tool for anyone managing data, regardless of their field of expertise. Its numerous features offer great flexibility in managing and analyzing data, as well as the ability to create professional-looking reports and presentations. By mastering Excel and understanding its full potential, users can gain a competitive edge in their respective industries, enhancing their productivity and efficiency.

Low DC current systems

 Low DC current systems

 are becoming increasingly popular as a way to power devices in harsh industrial environments or to provide power to high-demand applications. These systems use small amounts of AC or DC power to produce low-voltage signals that can be used to power a variety of devices.

Low DC current systems can be used to power devices in a variety of ways. Some systems use small DC voltage sources to power low-power microcontrollers or sensors. These systems are especially useful for applications that need to be small and lightweight, or that need to be easily portable.

Another popular use for low DC current systems is in harsh industrial environments. These systems are often used to power devices that are difficult to power withAC power. Low DC current systems can provide power to high-demand applications, and they are often less expensive than AC power options.

Low DC current systems are also becoming increasingly popular as a way to power devices in high-demand applications. These systems use small amounts of AC or DC power to produce low-voltage signals that can be used to power a variety of devices.

Low DC current systems are often used to power devices that are difficult to power with AC power. Low DC current systems can provide power to high-demand applications, and they are often less expensive than AC power options.

Low DC current systems are also becoming increasingly popular as a way to power devices in high-demand applications. These systems use small amounts of AC or DC power to produce low-voltage signals that can be used to power a variety of devices.

Low DC current systems are often used to power devices that are difficult to power with AC power. Low DC current systems can provide power to high-demand applications, and they are often less expensive than AC power options

Cooling tower

 Cooling towers are essential components in many industrial settings, including power plants, petrochemical facilities, and manufacturing plants. They are used to remove heat generated by industrial processes and dissipate it into the atmosphere, thus preventing equipment from overheating and improving process efficiency. In this article, we will explore what cooling towers are, how they work, the types of cooling towers, and their applications.

What is a Cooling Tower?

A cooling tower is a large heat exchanger that removes heat from a process by allowing water to contact air. They are typically used in industrial applications to remove heat from equipment such as engines, turbines, compressors, and other machines that generate heat.

Cooling towers work by using evaporation to remove heat. They contain a large volume of water that flows over a series of heat transfer surfaces or fill packs. Warm water from the industrial process is pumped into the tower and sprayed over the fill pack. Air is then drawn through the tower, either naturally or by a fan, which causes evaporation, thus cooling the water. The cooled water is then pumped back to the industrial process, and the process is repeated.

Types of Cooling Towers

There are two main types of cooling towers: open circuit cooling towers and closed circuit cooling towers.

Open Circuit Cooling Towers

Open circuit cooling towers, also known as wet cooling towers, are the most common type of cooling tower used in industrial applications. They are essentially large water-to-air heat exchangers that use the evaporative cooling process to remove heat from the industrial process.

In an open circuit cooling tower, warm water from the industrial process is pumped into a distribution basin, where it is sprayed out over a series of heat transfer surfaces or fill packs. As air is drawn through the tower, it evaporates some of the water, thus cooling it. The cooled water is then collected in a basin at the bottom of the tower, and either recirculated back to the industrial process or discharged to the environment.

Closed Circuit Cooling Towers

Closed circuit cooling towers, also known as dry cooling towers, are used in applications where the industrial process requires a closed loop cooling system. In a closed circuit cooling tower, water is circulated through a closed loop of heat exchangers, which are cooled by air. The cooled water is then circulated back to the industrial process.

In a closed circuit cooling tower, the water never comes into direct contact with the air. Instead, the heat transfer surfaces are cooled by a separate air stream, which is then discharged to the environment. The closed circuit cooling tower is more energy efficient than an open circuit cooling tower because it does not require the additional pumping needed to recirculate the water.

Applications of Cooling Towers

Cooling towers are used in a wide range of industrial applications to remove heat generated by machinery and processes. Some of the most common applications of cooling towers include:

- Power plants: Cooling towers are used in power plants to remove heat generated by turbines and other equipment. The cooled water is then recirculated back to the equipment.

- Petrochemical plants: Cooling towers are used in petrochemical plants to remove heat generated by industrial processes such as polymerization and distillation.

- HVAC systems: Cooling towers are a critical component of many large-scale HVAC systems, such as those found in commercial and industrial buildings.

- Refineries: Cooling towers are used in refineries to remove heat from various processes, including fluid catalytic cracking and distillation.

- Food and beverage industry: Cooling towers are used to cool water and other liquids used in the food and beverage industry, including breweries, wineries, and soft drink bottlers.

Conclusion

Cooling towers are essential components in industrial processes that generate heat. They offer an energy-efficient method of removing heat from large-scale equipment and processes, thereby increasing efficiency and prolonging the life of the equipment. Open circuit cooling towers are the most common type of cooling tower and use the evaporative cooling process to remove heat. Closed circuit cooling towers are used in closed loop cooling systems, where the water never comes into direct contact with the air. The choice of cooling tower depends on the specific application and the amount of cooling required. By understanding what cooling towers are, how they work, and their applications, engineers can make informed decisions that result in efficient and reliable industrial processes.

Rolling bearings

 Rolling bearings are an essential component of all rotating machinery. They are used to support shafts, reduce friction, and minimize wear between moving parts. Rolling bearings are commonly found in a wide range of applications, including automobiles, heavy machinery, aerospace, and wind turbines. In this article, we will look at the different types of rolling bearings, their design, materials, and lubrication.

Types of Rolling Bearings

There are two main types of rolling bearings: ball bearings and roller bearings. Ball bearings are the most common type of rolling bearing and are designed to support radial loads. They are made up of a series of balls, which are held in place by an inner and outer raceway. Roller bearings, on the other hand, are designed to support heavier loads and are made up of a cylindrical or tapered roller. They are commonly used in applications such as heavy machinery and automotive transmissions.

Within these two main categories, there are several different types of bearings. These include deep groove ball bearings, angular contact ball bearings, self-aligning ball bearings, cylindrical roller bearings, tapered roller bearings, spherical roller bearings, and needle roller bearings. The choice of bearing type depends on the specific application and loading requirements.

Design of Rolling Bearings

The design of rolling bearings is critical to their performance and reliability. The basic design of a rolling bearing consists of an inner ring, an outer ring, rolling elements, and a cage that holds the rolling elements in place. The design must be optimized to minimize friction, maximize load capacity, and provide long service life.

The outer and inner rings of the bearing are typically made of steel or a similar material. The rolling elements can be made of steel, ceramic, or other materials. The cage that holds the rolling elements in place can be made of stamped steel, machined brass or plastic.

The three most important design parameters for rolling bearings are load capacity, rotational speed, and stiffness. Load capacity is determined by factors such as the size of the bearing, the number of rolling elements, and the materials used. Rotational speed is determined by the type of bearing and the lubrication used. Stiffness is determined by the bearing's geometry and the materials used.

Materials Used in Rolling Bearings

The materials used in rolling bearings must be able to withstand high stress, wear, and corrosion. The most common material used for the outer and inner rings is high-quality steel. Steel is ideal for bearing applications due to its high strength, durability, and resistance to wear and corrosion.

The choice of rolling element material depends on the application. Steel balls are the most commonly used rolling elements due to their high strength and durability. However, ceramic, plastic, or other materials may be used in special applications where high temperatures or corrosion are factors.

The material used for the cage will depend on the application requirements. For example, stamped steel cages are commonly used in automotive applications, while machined brass cages are used in heavy machinery where high loading is a consideration.

Lubrication for Rolling Bearings

Lubrication is critical for the performance and reliability of rolling bearings. Lubrication serves to reduce friction between the rolling elements and the raceways, thereby reducing wear and prolonging the life of the bearing.

The most common lubrication method for rolling bearings is the use of grease or oil. Grease is preferred in applications where continuous lubrication is not possible, such as in sealed bearings. Oil is preferred in applications where high speeds or temperatures are present, such as in machinery or aerospace applications.

The type of lubricant used will depend on the application requirements. For example, high-temperature and high-speed applications may require a synthetic lubricant, while low-temperature applications may require a mineral-based lubricant.

Preventing Bearing Failure

Bearing failure can occur due to a variety of reasons, including insufficient lubrication, contamination, overloading, and misalignment. Preventing bearing failure is critical to the reliability and safety of rotating machinery.

Proper installation and maintenance are critical to preventing bearing failure. When installing a bearing, it is important to ensure that it is properly aligned, that the correct lubricant is used, and that it is properly torqued. In addition, routine maintenance, such as regular lubrication and inspection, can help prevent bearing failure.

Conclusion

Rolling bearings are an essential component of all rotating machinery. They are designed to support shafts, reduce friction, and minimize wear between moving parts. The choice of bearing type, design, materials, and lubrication will depend on the specific application requirements. Preventing bearing failure is critical to the reliability and safety of rotating machinery. Proper installation and maintenance are critical to preventing bearing failure and ensuring long service life. By understanding the different types of bearings, their design, materials, and lubrication, designers can make informed decisions that will result in reliable and efficient rotating machinery.

Electrical fixtures and designs

 Electrical fixtures and designs play a crucial role in the aesthetic and functionality of any building. Whether it is a residential, commercial or industrial building, the fixtures and design have a direct impact on the occupants' safety, comfort and energy consumption.

When it comes to fixtures and designs, there are several factors to consider, such as the type of space, the lighting requirements, the materials used, and the electrical codes and standards. Here are some helpful insights on electrical fixtures and designs.

Lighting Fixtures

Lighting plays a vital role in enhancing the ambiance of any space. The right lighting can make a room look spacious, cozy, or dramatic. When selecting lighting fixtures, you need to consider the purpose of the space and the lighting levels needed.

For instance, task lighting is essential in areas where detailed work is performed, such as in a home office or a workshop. Recessed lighting is ideal for highlighting artwork, while pendant lighting can add a decorative touch to a living space.

Electrical Outlets

Electrical outlets are essential in any building as they provide a means of connecting electrical appliances and devices. When designing an electrical system, it is crucial to ensure that there are enough outlets in each room, and they are conveniently located.

In addition, you should consider the type of outlets to install. For instance, GFCI outlets are required in areas that are exposed to water, such as bathrooms, kitchens or outdoor spaces. USB outlets are also becoming increasingly popular as more devices are charged via USB power.

Electrical Panels

Electrical panels serve as the hub for distributing power throughout a building. When designing an electrical panel, you need to ensure that it is large enough to handle the electrical load and compliant with the electrical codes.

In addition, you should consider the location of the electrical panel. It should be easily accessible in case of troubleshooting or maintenance. Proper labeling should also be done to make it easier to identify the circuits and breakers.

Electrical Wiring

Electrical wiring is an essential element in any electrical system. Proper electrical wiring ensures that power is distributed safely and efficiently throughout the building.

When designing an electrical wiring system, it is essential to ensure that it is installed by a qualified electrician and compliant with the electrical codes. The wiring should also be of the appropriate size to support the electrical load and properly routed away from potentially hazardous areas.

In conclusion, electrical fixtures and designs are critical components that contribute to the safety, functionality and aesthetic appeal of any building. As such, they should be designed and installed by qualified professionals with the necessary skills, experience and compliance with the.  relevant electrical codes and standards. -

gearbox

 A gearbox, also known as a transmission, is an essential component in most modern machines. It is a complex assembly of gears that helps machines convert torque and rotational motion from one speed or direction to another. It is used in a wide range of applications such as cars, boats, heavy machinery, and industrial equipment.

The main function of the gearbox is to provide the correct amount of torque at a specific speed for the machine to perform its intended task. A gearbox may be manual, automatic, or semi-automatic, depending on the application. In manual gearboxes, the operator manually engages and disengages gears. In automatic gearboxes, the gear shifting is done automatically, while in semi-automatic gearboxes, the operator can manually shift gears using paddle shifters or similar mechanisms.

The basic principle behind gearboxes is to match the rotational speed and torque of an engine or motor to the requirements of the machine it's driving. A gearbox consists of a series of gears that are arranged in a specific pattern. Each gear has a different number of teeth, and the size and shape of each gear determine its torque and rotational speed.

When the engine spins the input shaft of the gearbox, it rotates the first gear in the gearbox. This gear then turns the next gear in the sequence, which then turns the next gear, and so on. Each gear increases or decreases the speed and torque of the previous gear until it reaches the output shaft of the gearbox. The output shaft then delivers the required torque and speed to the machine's axle or wheels.

Due to the complex nature of gearboxes, they require regular maintenance and servicing to ensure they work efficiently and smoothly. The lubrication of each gear is essential, as it helps reduce friction and wear, and prolongs the lifespan of the gearbox.

In conclusion, gearboxes play an essential role in many machines and are critical for converting torque and rotational motion from one speed or direction to another. They come in various types, sizes, and configurations, and their maintenance is crucial for their proper functioning. As technology continues to evolve, gearboxes are bound to become more advanced, efficient, and effective in their applications.

Diesel fire pump

Diesel fire pumps 

are an essential component of fire protection systems, providing reliable backup power to extinguish fires in the event of a power outage or a failure of the primary electric fire pump. In this article, we will explore the benefits and features of diesel fire pumps, as well as their importance in preventing and minimizing the damage caused by fires.

First and foremost, diesel fire pumps are highly reliable, as they are powered by diesel engines that are capable of generating high levels of power and performance for long periods of time. Unlike electric fire pumps, diesel fire pumps are not dependent on the electricity grid or external power sources, which makes them a suitable choice for remote locations or areas where power outages are frequent.

Moreover, diesel fire pumps are designed to withstand harsh environmental conditions, such as extreme heat, dust, and moisture, making them ideal for use in industrial and commercial settings. Their robust construction and advanced engineering ensure that they can operate under the most challenging conditions, such as after a natural disaster or during an emergency.

Another benefit of diesel fire pumps is their capacity to produce high flow rates and pressure levels, which enables them to extinguish fires quickly and effectively. They are capable of delivering water volumes up to 5,000 gallons per minute and pressures up to 300 psi, which can be crucial in preventing fires from spreading and limiting the damage caused by them.

Finally, diesel fire pumps are easy to maintain and service, thanks to their simple design and user-friendly features. They require minimal maintenance, and the diesel engine requires regular servicing to ensure optimal performance and efficiency.

In conclusion, diesel fire pumps play a crucial role in fire protection systems, providing a reliable and efficient backup power source to extinguish fires in the event of an emergency. Their advanced features, robust construction, and easy maintenance make them a popular choice for industrial and commercial settings, ensuring the safety of people and property in the event of a fire.

Fire pump

 A fire pump is a critical component of a fire protection system, as it provides the necessary water pressure to extinguish fires in the event of an emergency. It works by drawing water from a reliable source, such as a water tank or municipal supply, and then boosting the pressure to an adequate level for firefighting. The fire pump is typically housed in a dedicated pump room and is activated automatically or manually when needed. Proper maintenance and regular testing of the fire pump are crucial to ensure that it functions properly when it is needed most. In short, a reliable and well-functioning fire pump is an essential element of any fire protection system, and it can play a crucial role in saving lives and protecting property in the event of a fire 

هندسة التآكل

تابع هندسة التاكل

البيئة هي العامل الأساسي في تآكل المعادن. وعمليًا جميع البيئات

والاوساط يحدث بها التآكل بدرجات متفاوتة. ومن أمثلة ذلك الهواء الرطب،

والماء النقي، والمحتوى ي على أملاح، والمناخ الريفي والحضري، وهواء المنطقة

الصناعية، وكذلك بخار الغازات مثل الكلور واألمونيا وكبريتيد الهيدروجين  وثاني أكسيد الكبريت، وغازات الوقود مثل أول وثاني أكسيد الكربون،

واألحماض المعدنية مثل الهيدروكلوريك والكبريتيك والنيتريك، واألحماض

العضوية مثل الخليك والنمليك، وأنواع التربة المختلفة، وكذلك المذيبات

العضوية، والزيوت ، وأنواع كثيرة من األغذية.

ومن المالحظ أن المواد غير العضوية تسبب انهيار ا للمعدن أكثر من المواد العضوية. فمثالً التآكل في المجمعات النفطية الصناعية يحدث بسبب

وجود كلوريد الصوديوم والكبريت وحمض الهيدروكلوريك والكبريتيك والماء أكثر

من التآكل الناتج عن المشتقات النفطية.

1-5 تأثير التآكل على النواحي الصناعية:

إن أهمية دراسة تأثير التآكل على الصناعة تندرج تحت المجالات الأساسية الاتية :

1 -تخفيض التكلفة:

ويتضمن التقليل من استعمال أو فقدان المواد بسبب التآكل مثل خطوط األنابيب، والخزانات، والالات، والسفن، والكباري، والأرصفة البحرية، وجميع الهياكل المعدنية.

2 -تحسين سالمة التشغيل:

وذلك بالمحافظة على الأرواح والممتلاكات من الانهيارات المفاجئة

مثل الغلايات، وخزانات الغاز، والهياكل المحتوية على المواد المشعة،

والطائرات، والاجزاء المتحركة في الآلات

 3-المحافظة على الثروات المعدنية:

 فهذه الثروات محدودة في العالم، هدارها يتضمن إهدار

و للطاقة والمياه

بالإضافة إلى المادة نفسها وتصنيعها.

1-7 تكاليف التآكل:

تنقسم تكاليف التآكل إلى نوعين رئيسيين:

ا( التكاليف المباشرة:

وتشمل استبدال قطع الغيار والقطع المتآكلة مثل أنابيب الغاليات

المكثفات وأسقف المباني وغيرها من القطع مع العمالة ومواد التشغيل . وكذلك

الطلاء الدوري لمنع الصدأ والمحافظة على المظهر الالئق كما في السيارات

والعربات الآلات. ومن التكاليف المباشرة األجهزة الخاصة لحماية المعادن مثل

الحماية المهبطية. و استعمال السبائك المكلفة، وزيادة سمك المعادن و استعمال

 مانعات التآكل والمبيدات الميكروبية، ضافة الوحدات الخاصة لفصل المواد

وا

الاكلة مثل وحدات إزالة الكبريت ومركباته والاكسجين وغيره.

ب( التكاليف غير المباشرة :

تعتبر التكاليف غير المباشرة أكبر وأعظم من التكاليف المباشرة، كما

أنه من الصعوبة تقديرها أو التنبؤ بها، ومن هذه التكاليف ما يأتي:

1 -تعطيل النتائج:

إن تغيير أنبوب متآكل في مصفاة للنفط لا يكلف إلا مبلغًا زهيدًا

مقارنة بإيقاف الوحدة الإنتاجية والوحدات المتعلقة بها . كما أن انهيار أحد. أنابيب الغاليات في مصنع يوقف إنتاج المصنع بأكمله، و انسداد أحد الأنابيب 

في منظومة الوقود بالطائرة يعطلها عن العمل ول لخطر ركاب ها ي عرض.

2 -فقد المنتجات:

عند انهيار أحد األنابيب بالمصنع أو الوحدة الإنتاجية يحتاج الأمر إلى

وقت حتى يتم إصالحه ويتسبب ذلك في فقدان كثير من المنتجات أو المواد

المستعملة مثل الزيوت والمشتقات النفطية والمياه وما تحتويه من مواد ضد

التجمد أو مانعات للتآكل وكذلك فساد اإلنتاج بسبب تعطل الوحدات اإلنتاجية

الأخرى.

3 -تدنى مستوى الكفاءة:

تصمم وحدات الطاقة في المصانع بناء على أن جميع المسالك

والوحدات نظيفة وجيدة وبعد فترة تقل كفاءة الآلات والمعدات بسبب تراكم

الصدأ والمواد العالقة على السطوح فتقل توصيلية المعادن للحرارة وينخفض

معدل الضخ في الأنابيب وكل ذلك يحتاج إلى زيادة طاقة الآلات لتعويض الفاقد.

4 -تلوث المنتجات:

يعتمد تسويق و استعمال المنتجات الصناعية على درجة نقاوتها ونوعيتها وخلوها من التلوث مثل األغذية والمواد البالستيكية واألدوية وغيرها،

كما أن وجود كميات بسيطة من المواد الغريبة قد يفسد أطنانا من المنتجات فمثالً كمية صغيرة من النحاس ناتجة عن تآكل األنابيب في مصنع الصابون مع المواد الخام تعمل على فساد ) تزنخ ( الصابون عند التخزين لفترة قصيرة.

كما أن وجود أكثر من جزء واحد في المليون من الرصاص يعمل على تسمم  المواد الغذائية.

:)Over design( التصميم فرط- 5

إن معامل فرط التصميم شائع جدًا في صناعة الخزانات الحرارية

وخزانات الغاز وأنابيب المياه والنفط. وذلك عن طريق زيادة سمك الهيكل أو

اختيار معدن أقوى ليتحمل الضغط والاجهادات عند التشغيل والتأكد من سالمة

الهياكل خلال عمرها الزمني . وكمثل على ذلك تبلغ كمية الحديد المستعملة

في زيادة سمك خطوط الأنابيب آلاف الاطنان لعدة مئات من الكيلومترات 

.

هندسه التآكل

 هندسة التآكل

1-1 الأهمية الاقتصادية لمكافحة التآكل:

تقدر تكاليف التآكل في الدول الصناعية المتقدمة بين )3-5 )%من

الدخل الوطني. فمثالً في بريطانيا وصلت هذه القيمة إلى 4 مليار جنيه

إسترليني، بنسبة 5 ،%في سنة 1782 م، وتزداد هذه النسبة في الدول النامية

ودول العالم الثالث. فالدراسات األولية لتكاليف التآكل بالمنشآت الصناعية

والنفطية في ليبيا تقدر بـ 152 مليون دوالر سنويًا حسب تقديرات سنة 1782

وتزيد عن أضعاف هذه القيمة حاليا.إ ن العالم يتغير كثيرا عندما يكون هناك تآكل للمعادن، فمثلا

السيارات والعربات والسفن وخطوط الانابيب والهياكل المعدنية الاخرى لا تحتاج لى طلاء، كما أن الصلب المقاوم للتآكل وسبائك النيكل الباهظة الثمن سوف لا  نحتاج إليها، وكذلك النحاس سيستعمل للتوصيلات والاغراض الكهربائية

فقط، ومعظم المصانع والادوات المستعملة سوف تكون من الصلب الكربوني أو حديد الزهر. ولكن لم يكن ذلك ممكنا،ً فالتآكل يصل إلى جميع المعادنا لمستعملة داخل المنزل وخارجه، في الطرق، وفى البحر، وكذلك في المصانع،وحتى في سفن الفضاء .ولما كان التآكل موجوداً فإن تخفيض تكاليفه هو الاسلوب الوحيد للتغلب عليه ، فمثالً قضيب الماغنسيوم الرخيص الثمن يستطيع أن يضاعف عمر خزان الماء الساخن بالبيت، كما أن الصيانة الجيدة وبرنامج الطلاءا لمحدد يقلل كثيرا من التكاليف، وكذلك اختبار المواد والتصميم المناسب يساعد على تخفيض الخسائر بمعدل 25 %من إجمالي تكاليف التآكل . وهنا يأتي دور مهندس التآكل حيث يعمل على تطبيق أهم الطرق التكنولوجية الحديثة

للتغلب على التآكل.

1-2 هندسة التآكل:

هندسة التآكل هي عملية تطبيق العلوم والمهارات العملية للوقاية من أو التحكم في انهيارات المعادن بصورة سليمة و اقتصادية . وحتى يتمكن مهندس

التآكل من أداء عمله يجب أن يكون ملمًا بأساسيات التآكل وتطبيقاته والتي تتضمن عدة علوم منها أساسيات الكيمياء وباألخص الكيمياء الكهربية، و علوم

المعادن، وخواص المواد، و كذلك اختبارات التآكل، وطبيعة البيئة، وتوفر المواد

وتصنيعها، وطرق التصميم. باإلضافة إلى ذلك يجب أن يتحلى مهندس التآكل

بالقدرات الهندسية الأخرى مثل الملاحظة، وتنظيم المعلومات، والتحليل،

و استخدام الخبرات السابقة واالهتمام بالسالمة وتقدير التكلفة . ويكون قادرا على

المفاضلة بين الحلول المقترحة لمشكلة تآكل واحدة بالنظر إلى الناحية

الاقتصادية عادة إن لم تكن هناك عوارض أخرى.

:التآكل 3-1

التآكل هو عبارة عن انهيار المواد بسبب التفاعل مع البيئة المحيطة.

وكان في السابق يقتصر على المعادن و تم تعميمه حديثاً.